Role of Knowledge Creation and Absorptive Capacity: A Panel Data Study of Innovation
Authors
Main Article Content
Abstract
Purpose- Knowledge creation refers to the ability of firms to create new knowledge that starts from individuals to integrating the firms and then the overall economy. This study suggests that knowledge acquisition in a country has a significant relationship with innovative performance.
Design/Methodology- Data from 48 highly HDI countries is taken from World Bank and World Economic Forum. Based on 480 country-year observations in a panel mediator model, it is revealed that the national efforts of boosting knowledge acquisition influence the firms’ innovative performance.
Findings- Further, it is found that absorptive capacity in the employability of knowledgeable workers works as a mediator between knowledge acquisition and innovation. Whereby higher knowledge acquisition leads to higher absorptive capacity and higher innovation.
Practical Implications- This study builds a quantitative model for the macroeconomic context of knowledge-based view.
Article Details
Copyright (c) 2021 Kamran Hameed, Noman Arshed, Mubbasher Munir

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Abbey, A., & Dickson, J. W. (1983). R&D work climate and innovation in semiconductors. Academy of Management Journal, 26(2), 362-368. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/255984 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, N., & West, M. A. (1996). The Team Climate Inventory: Development of the TCI and its applications in teambuilding for innovativeness. European Journal of work and organizational psychology, 5(1), 53-66. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13594329608414840 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Aroian, L. A. (1944). Some Methods for the Evaluation of a Sum. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 39(228), 511-515. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1944.10500714 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Arshed, N., Anwar, A., Kousar, N., & Samra, B. (2018). Education Enrollment Level and Income Inequality: A Case of SAARC Economies. Social Indicators Research, 140(1), 1211-1224. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-017-1824-9 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Arshed, N., & Kalim, R. (2020). Modelling demand and supply of Islamic banking deposits. International Journal of Finance & Economics. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ijfe.1936 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Arshed, N., Rauf, R., & Bukhari, S. (2021). Empirical Contribution of Human Capital in Entrepreneurship. Global Business Review, 0972150920976702. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0972150920976702 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Audretsch, D. B., Carree, M. A., & Thurik, A. R. (2001). Does entrepreneurship reduce unemployment? : Tinbergen Institute discussion paper.
Barney, J. (1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of management, 17(1), 99-120. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639101700108 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of personality and social psychology, 51(6), 1173. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Barro, R., & Sala-i-Martin, X. (1995). Economic growth, New York, McGrow-Hill: Inc.
Barro, R. J. (1991). Economic growth in a cross section of countries. The quarterly journal of economics, 106(2), 407-443. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2937943 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bontis, N., Dragonetti, N. C., Jacobsen, K., & Roos, G. (1999). The knowledge toolbox:: A review of the tools available to measure and manage intangible resources. European management journal, 17(4), 391-402. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0263-2373(99)00019-5 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Business, D. (2018). Doing Business Report: World Bank.
Cameron, K. S., & Whetten, D. A. (1983). Models of the organizational life cycle: Applications to higher education. The Review of Higher Education, 6(4), 269-299. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/rhe.1983.0009 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Capon, N., Farley, J. U., Lehmann, D. R., & Hulbert, J. M. (1992). Profiles of product innovators among large US manufacturers. Management Science, 38(2), 157-169. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.38.2.157
Cheng, C. C., & Huizingh, E. K. (2014). When is open innovation beneficial? The role of strategic orientation. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 31(6), 1235-1253. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jpim.12148 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Chesbrough, H. (2003). Open innovation: Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Chesbrough, H. (2004). Managing open innovation. Research-Technology Management, 47(1), 23-26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08956308.2004.11671604 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Chesbrough, H. (2007). Business model innovation: it's not just about technology anymore. Strategy & leadership, 35(6), 12-17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/10878570710833714 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Chesbrough, H., & Crowther, A. K. (2006). Beyond high tech: early adopters of open innovation in other industries. R&d Management, 36(3), 229-236. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9310.2006.00428.x CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Chesbrough, H., Vanhaverbeke, W., & West, J. (2006). Open innovation: Researching a new paradigm: Oxford University Press on Demand. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Chesbrough, H., Vanhaverbeke, W., & West, J. (2014). New frontiers in open innovation: Oup Oxford. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Chesbrough, H. W. (2003). Open innovation: The new imperative for creating and profiting from technology: Harvard Business Press.
Chesbrough, H. W., Vanhaverbeke, W., & West, J. (2014). New Frontiers in Open Innovation: Oxford University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199682461.001.0001 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Christensen, J., & Drejer, I. (2005). The strategic importance of location: Location decisions and the effects of firm location on innovation and knowledge acquisition. European Planning Studies, 13(6), 807-814. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09654310500187862 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Cimoli, M. (2005). Science and technology policies in open economies: The case of Latin America and the Caribbean (Vol. 165): United Nations Publications.
Cimoli, M., Ferraz, J. C., & Primi, A. (2005). Science and technology policies in open economies: The case of Latin America and the Caribbean.
Cohen, W. M., & Levinthal, D. A. (1990). Absorptive capacity: A new prespective on learning and innovaton. Administrative Science Quarterly, 129-152. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2393553
Cook, S. D., & Brown, J. S. (1999). Bridging epistemologies: The generative dance between organizational knowledge and organizational knowing. Organization science, 10(4), 381-400. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.10.4.381 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, R. G. (1979). The dimensions of industrial new product success and failure. The Journal of Marketing, 93-103. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/002224297904300310 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Mapping the field of mixed methods research: SAGE publications Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA.
Cunningham, J. A., & Link, A. N. (2016). Exploring the effectiveness of research and innovation policies among European Union countries. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 12(2), 415-425. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-016-0394-7 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Czarnitzki, D., & Thorwarth, S. (2012). Productivity effects of basic research in low-tech and high-tech industries. Research Policy, 41(9), 1555-1564. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2012.04.009 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Duysters, G., & Lokshin, B. (2011). Determinants of alliance portfolio complexity and its effect on innovative performance of companies. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 28(4), 570-585. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5885.2011.00824.x CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Eicher, T. S. (1996). Interaction between endogenous human capital and technological change. The Review of Economic Studies, 63(1), 127-144. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2298118 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Epstein, M. J., & Roy, M. J. (1997). Using ISO 14000 for improved organizational learning and environmental management. Environmental Quality Management, 7(1), 21-30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/tqem.3310070103 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Feldman, M. P., & Florida, R. (1994). The geographic sources of innovation: technological infrastructure and product innovation in the United States. Annals of the association of American Geographers, 84(2), 210-229. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1994.tb01735.x CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Freeman, C., & Soete, L. (1997). The economics of industrial innovation: Psychology Press.
Furman, J. L., Porter, M. E., & Stern, S. (2002). The determinants of national innovative capacity. Research Policy, 31(6), 899-933. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-7333(01)00152-4 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Gherardi, S., Nicolini, D., & Odella, F. (1998). Toward a social understanding of how people learn in organizations: The notion of situated curriculum. Management learning, 29(3), 273-297. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1350507698293002 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Girma, B. (2017). Intellectual capital efficiency and its impact on financial performances of Ethiopian commercial banks. Research Journal of Finance and Accounting, 8(8), 17-31.
Gonzalez, R. V. D., & Martins, M. F. (2017). Knowledge Management Process: a theoretical-conceptual research. Gestão & Produção, 24(2), 248-265. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/0104-530x0893-15
Goodman, L. A. (1960). On the exact variance of products. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 55(292), 708-713. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1960.10483369 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Greene, W. H. (2012). Econometric analysis (6th ed.). NJ: Prentice Hall.
Gunawan, T., Jacob, J., & Duysters, G. (2016). Network ties and entrepreneurial orientation: Innovative performance of SMEs in a developing country. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 12(2), 575-599. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-014-0355-y CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hanaysha, J. (2016). Examining the effects of employee empowerment, teamwork, and employee training on organizational commitment. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 229, 298-306. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.07.140 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hanif, N., & Arshed, N. (2016). Relationship between school education and economic growth: SAARC countries. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 6(1), 294-300.
Hanif, N., Arshed, N., & Aziz, O. (2020). On interaction of the energy: Human capital Kuznets curve? A case for technology innovation. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 22(8), 7559-7586. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-019-00536-9 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hanushek, E. A., & Kimko, D. D. (2000). Schooling, labor-force quality, and the growth of nations. American economic review, 90(5), 1184-1208. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.90.5.1184 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hanushek, E. A., & Woessmann, L. (2008). The role of cognitive skills in economic development. Journal of Economic Literature, 46(3), 607-668. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.46.3.607 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hassan, M. S., Bukhari, S., & Arshed, N. (2019). Competitiveness, governance and globalization: What matters for poverty alleviation? Environment, Development and Sustainability(1-28). doi: 10.1007/s10668-019-00355-y CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach: Guilford publications.
Henkel, J. (2006). Selective revealing in open innovation processes: The case of embedded Linux. Research Policy, 35(7), 953-969. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2006.04.010 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hernández-Espallardo, M., Sánchez-Pérez, M., & Segovia-López, C. (2011). Exploitation-and exploration-based innovations: the role of knowledge in inter-firm relationships with distributors. Technovation, 31(5-6), 203-215. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.technovation.2011.01.007 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Jarque, C. M., & Bera, A. K. (1987). A test for normality of observations and regression residuals. International Statistical Review / Revue Internationale de Statistique, 55(2), 163-172. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1403192 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Jashapara, A. (2004). Knowledge management: An integrated approach: Pearson Education.
Jashapara, A. (2005). The emerging discourse of knowledge management: a new dawn for information science research? Journal of information science, 31(2), 136-148. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0165551505051057 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kalim, R., Arshed, N., & Shaheen, S. (2019). Does competitiveness moderate inclusive growth: a panel study of low-income countries. Competitiveness Review: An International Business Journal. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/CR-11-2017-0074 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Keller, W. (1996). Absorptive capacity: On the creation and acquisition of technology in development. Journal of Development Economics, 49(1), 199-227. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3878(95)00060-7 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kleiner, G. (2011). The Resource-Based View and the System Organization of Economy. Russian management journal, 9(3), 3-28. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kuhlmann, S., Shapira, P., & Smits, R. (2010). Introduction. A systemic perspective: the innovation policy dance. The theory and practice of innovation policy. An international research handbook, 1-22. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Lane, P. J., & Lubatkin, M. (1998). Relative absorptive capacity and interorganizational learning. Strategic management journal, 19(5), 461-477. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199805)19:5<461::AID-SMJ953>3.0.CO;2-L
Leal-Rodriguez, A. L., Roldan, J. L., & Ariza-Montes, J. A. (2014). From potential absorptive capacity to innovation outcomes in project teams: The conditional mediating role of the realized absorptive capacity in a realational learning context. International Journal of Project Management, 32(6), 894-907. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2014.01.005 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Li, T., & Calantone, R. J. (1998). The impact of market knowledge competence on new product advantage: conceptualization and empirical examination. The Journal of Marketing, 13-29. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/002224299806200402 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Liao, S.-H., Wu, C.-C., Hu, D.-C., & Tsui, K.-A. (2010). Relationships between knowledge acquisition, absorptive capacity and innovation capability: an empirical study on Taiwan’s financial and manufacturing industries. Journal of information science, 36(1), 19-35. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0165551509340362 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Liao, S. H., Fei, W. C., & Chen, C. C. (2007). Knowledge sharing, absorptive capacity, and innovation capability: an empirical study of Taiwan's knowlegde-intensive industries. Journal of Information Science, 33(3), 340-359. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0165551506070739 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Lind, D. A., Marchal, W. G., & Wathen, S. A. (2012). Statistical techniques in business & economics: New York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Lumpkin, G. T., & Dess, G. G. (1996). Clarifying the entrepreneurial orientation construct and linking it to performance. Academy of management review, 21(1), 135-172. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1996.9602161568 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Lundvall, B.-Å., & Borrás, S. (2005). Science, technology, and innovation policy Oxford handbook of innovation (pp. 599-631): Oxford University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199286805.003.0022
MacKinnon, D. P., Warsi, G., & Dwyer, J. H. (1995). A simulation study of mediated effect measures. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 30(1), 41-62. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr3001_3 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Martín-de-Castro, G., Delgado-Verde, M., López-Sáez, P., & Navas-López, J. E. (2011). Towards ‘an intellectual capital-based view of the firm’: origins and nature. Journal of business ethics, 98(4), 649-662. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-010-0644-5 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Mauro, P. (1995). Corruption and growth. The quarterly journal of economics, 110(3), 681-712. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2946696 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Miller, D. (2011). Miller (1983) revisited: A reflection on EO research and some suggestions for the future. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35(5), 873-894. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2011.00457.x
Mincer, J. (1991). Education and unemployment: National Bureau of Economic Research. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3386/w3838 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Molina-Morales, F. X., García-Villaverde, P. M., & Parra-Requena, G. (2014). Geographical and cognitive proximity effects on innovation performance in SMEs: a way through knowledge acquisition. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 10(2), 231-251. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-011-0214-z
Moorman, C., & Miner, A. S. (1997). The impact of organizational memory on new product performance and creativity. Journal of marketing research, 91-106. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/002224379703400108
Morgan, G., & Smircich, L. (1980). The case for qualitative research. Academy of management review, 5(4), 491-500. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1980.4288947 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Nelson, R. R., & Rosenberg, N. (1993). Technical innovation and national systems. National innovation systems: A comparative analysis, 322. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Orlikowski, W. J. (2002). Knowing in practice: Enacting a collective capability in distributed organizing. Organization science, 13(3), 249-273. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.13.3.249.2776 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Ortiz-de-Urbina-Criado, M., Montoro-Sánchez, Á., & Mora-Valentín, E. M. (2012). Do firm’s sector and size influence on the degree of inbound open innovation? International Journal of Transitions and Innovation Systems, 2(2), 169-193. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJTIS.2012.049420 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Padilla-Pérez, R., & Gaudin, Y. (2014). Science, technology and innovation policies in small and developing economies: The case of Central America. Research Policy, 43(4), 749-759. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2013.10.011 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Porter, M. E. (1980). Industry structure and competitive strategy: Keys to profitability. Financial analysts journal, 36(4), 30-41. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2469/faj.v36.n4.30 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Powell, C. (2003). The Delphi technique: myths and realities. Journal of advanced nursing, 41(4), 376-382. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.2003.02537.x
Ramadani, V., Abazi-Alili, H., Dana, L.-P., Rexhepi, G., & Ibraimi, S. (2017). The impact of knowledge spillovers and innovation on firm-performance: findings from the Balkans countries. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 13(1), 299-325. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-016-0393-8 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Randhawa, K., Wilden, R., & Hohberger, J. (2016). A bibliometric review of open innovation: Setting a research agenda. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 33(6), 750-772. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jpim.12312 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Ribeiro, R. (2013). Tacit knowledge management. Phenomenology and the cognitive sciences, 12(2), 337-366. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11097-011-9251-x
Rothwell, R., & Dodgson, M. (1991). External linkages and innovation in small and medium‐sized enterprises. R&d Management, 21(2), 125-138. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9310.1991.tb00742.x CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Rutten, R., & Boekema, F. (2005). Innovation, policy and economic growth: Theory and cases: Taylor & Francis. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09654310500336436 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Ryan, R. M., & Niemiec, C. P. (2009). Self-determination theory in schools of education: Can an empirically supported framework also be critical and liberating? School Field, 7(2), 263-272. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1477878509104331
Salampasis, D., & Mention, A.-L. (2017). Open Innovation: Unveiling the Power of the Human Element: World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1142/10056
Schendel, D., & Hofer, C. W. (1979). Strategic management: A new view of business policy and planning: Little, Brown.
Schmidt, T. (2005). What determines absorptive capacity. Paper presented at the DRUID summer conference.
Schroll, A., & Mild, A. (2012). A critical review of empirical research on open innovation adoption. Journal für Betriebswirtschaft, 62(2), 85-118. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11301-012-0084-7
Schultz, T. W. (1963). The economic value of education: Columbia University Press.
Segarra-Blasco, A., Garcia-Quevedo, J., & Teruel-Carrizosa, M. (2008). Barriers to innovation and public policy in Catalonia. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 4(4), 431-451. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-008-0086-z
Sinkula, J. M., Baker, W. E., & Noordewier, T. (1997). A framework for market-based organizational learning: Linking values, knowledge, and behavior. Journal of the academy of Marketing Science, 25(4), 305. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0092070397254003
Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. Sociological methodology, 13, 290-312. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/270723
Solow, R. M. (1956). A contribution to the theory of economic growth. The quarterly journal of economics, 70(1), 65-94. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1884513 CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Song, M., Podoynitsyna, K., Van Der Bij, H., & Halman, J. I. M. (2008). Success factors in new ventures: A meta‐analysis. Journal of product innovation management, 25(1), 7-27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5885.2007.00280.x
Stiglitz, J. E. (2012). The price of inequality: How today's divided society endangers our future: WW Norton & Company.
Sveiby, K. E. (1997). The new organizational wealth: Managing & measuring knowledge-based assets: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Szulanski, G. (1996). Exploring internal stickiness: Impediments to the transfer of best practice within the firm. Strategic management journal, 17(S2), 27-43. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250171105
Teece, D. J. (1998). Capturing value from knowledge assets: The new economy, markets for know-how, and intangible assets. California management review, 40(3), 55-79. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/41165943
Tödtling, F., & Trippl, M. (2005). One size fits all?: Towards a differentiated regional innovation policy approach. Research Policy, 34(8), 1203-1219. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2005.01.018
Tzortzaki, A. M., & Mihiotis, A. (2014). A review of knowledge management theory and future directions. Knowledge and Process Management, 21(1), 29-41. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/kpm.1429
Un, C. A., Cuervo‐Cazurra, A., & Asakawa, K. (2010). R&D collaborations and product innovation. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 27(5), 673-689. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5885.2010.00744.x
Van de Vrande, V., De Jong, J. P., Vanhaverbeke, W., & De Rochemont, M. (2009). Open innovation in SMEs: Trends, motives and management challenges. Technovation, 29(6-7), 423-437. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.technovation.2008.10.001
Vega-Jurado, J., Gutiérrez-Gracia, A., & Fernández-de-Lucio, I. (2009). Does external knowledge sourcing matter for innovation? Evidence from the Spanish manufacturing industry. Industrial and corporate change, 18(4), 637-670. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/icc/dtp023
Verspagen, B. (1992). Endogenous innovation in neoclassical growth models: a survey. Journal of Macroeconomics, 14(4), 631-662. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0164-0704(92)90004-R
WDI. (2018). World Development Indicators. World Bank Database.
WEF. (2018). Global Competitiveness Index: World Economic Forum.
West, J., & Bogers, M. (2014). Leveraging external sources of innovation: a review of research on open innovation. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 31(4), 814-831. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jpim.12125
Wirtz, B. W., Schilke, O., & Ullrich, S. (2010). Strategic development of business models: implications of the Web 2.0 for creating value on the internet. Long range planning, 43(2-3), 272-290. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp.2010.01.005
Wong, P. K., Ho, Y. P., & Autio, E. (2005). Entrepreneurship, innovation and economic growth: Evidence from GEM data. Small Business Economics, 24(3), 335-350. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-005-2000-1
Zahra, S. A., & George, G. (2002). Absorptive capacity: A review, reconceptualization, and extension. Academy of management review, 27(2), 185-203. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2002.6587995 CrossrefGoogle Scholar